How to Deal With Grounding in High Frequency Design

High frequency designs need to address the issue of grounding. There are several issues that need to be addressed when it comes to grounding. These include the impedance of grounding conductors and grounding bonds, DC path dominating low-frequency signals, and single-point grounding.

Impedance of grounding conductors

The grounding electrode of a typical grounded electrical system is in parallel with the ground rods located on the line side of the service, transformers, and poles. The rod under test is connected to the grounding electrode. The equivalent resistance of the line side ground rods is negligible.

A single-point grounding method is acceptable for frequencies below one MHz, but it is less desirable for high frequencies. A single-point grounding lead will raise the ground impedance due to wire inductance and track capacitance, while stray capacitance will create unintended ground return paths. For high-frequency circuits, multipoint grounding is necessary. However, this method creates ground loops that are susceptible to magnetic field induction. Therefore, it is important to avoid using hybrid ground loops, especially if the circuit will contain sensitive components.

Ground noise can be a major problem in high frequency circuits, especially when the circuits draw large varying currents from the supply. This current flows in the common-ground return and causes error voltage, or DV. This varies with the frequency of the circuit.

Impedance of bonding conductors

Ideally, the resistance of bonding conductors should be less than one milli-ohm. However, at higher frequencies, the behavior of a bonding conductor is more complex. It can exhibit parasitic effects and residual capacitance in parallel. In this case, the bonding conductor becomes a parallel resonant circuit. It can also exhibit high resistance due to the skin effect, which is the flow of current through the outer surface of the conductor.

A typical example of a conducted interference coupling is a motor or switching circuit fed into a microprocessor with an earth return. In this situation, the earthing conductor’s impedance is higher than its operating frequency, and it is likely to cause the circuit to resonant. Because of this, bonding conductors are typically bonded at multiple points, with different bonding lengths.

DC path dominating for low-frequency signals

It is widely assumed that DC path dominating for low-frequency signals is easier to implement than high-frequency circuits. However, this method has several limitations, especially in integrated implementations. These limitations include flicker noise, DC current offsets, and large time constants. Moreover, these designs usually use large resistors and capacitors, which can produce large thermal noise.

In general, the return current of high-frequency signals will follow the path of least loop area and least inductance. This means that the majority of the signal current returns on the plane via a narrow path directly below the signal trace.

Single-point grounding

Single-point grounding is an essential element in protecting communications sites from lightning. In addition to effective bonding, this technique offers structural lightning protection. It has been extensively tested in lightning-prone areas and has proven to be an effective method. However, single-point grounding isn’t the only consideration.

If the power level difference between the circuits is large, it may not be practical to use series single-point grounding. The resulting large return current can interfere with low-power circuits. If the power level difference is low, a parallel single-point grounding scheme can be used. However, this method has many disadvantages. In addition to being inefficient, single-point grounding requires a larger amount of grounding, and it also increases the ground impedance.

Single-point grounding systems are generally used in lower frequency designs. However, if the circuits are operated at high frequencies, a multipoint grounding system can be a good choice. The ground plane of a high-frequency circuit should be shared by two or more circuits. This will reduce the chances of magnetic loops.

Power interference

Power interferences can degrade the performance of a circuit and can even cause serious signal integrity problems. Hence, it is imperative to deal with power interferences in high frequency design. Fortunately, there are methods for dealing with these problems. The following tips will help you reduce the amount of power interference in your high frequency designs.

First, understand how electromagnetic interferences occur. There are two main types of interference: continuous and impulse. Continuous interference arises from man-made and natural sources. Both types of interference are characterized by a coupling mechanism and a response. Impulse noise, on the other hand, occurs intermittently and within a short time.

5 Major Causes of Foaming on Copper Plating of a PCB Board

There are many causes of foaming on the copper plating of a PCB board. Some are caused by oil or dust pollution while others are caused by the copper sinking process. Foaming is a problem with any copper plating process as it requires chemical solutions that can cross-contaminate other areas. It can also occur due to improper local treatment of the board surface.

Micro-etching

In micro-etching, the activity of the copper precipitate is too strong, causing pores to leak and blisters. It can also lead to poor adhesion and deteriorate coating quality. Hence, removing these impurities is crucial to prevent this problem.

Before attempting copper plating, the copper substrate is subjected to a cleaning sequence. This cleaning step is essential to remove surface impurities and provide an overall wetting of the surface. Next, the substrate is treated with an acid solution to condition the copper surface. This is followed by the copper plating step.

Another cause of foaming is improper cleaning after acid degreasing. This can be caused by improper cleaning after acid degreasing, misadjustment of the brightening agent, or poor copper cylinder temperature. Besides, improper cleaning can lead to slight oxidation of the board’s surface.

Oxidation

Oxidation causes foaming on the copper plating of the PCB board when the copper foil on the board is not sufficiently protected against the effects of oxidation. The problem can occur due to poor adhesion or surface roughness. It can also occur when the copper foil on the board is thin and does not adhere well to the board substrate.

Micro-etching is a process that is employed in copper sinking and pattern electroplating. Micro-etching should be performed carefully to avoid excessive oxidation. Over-etching could lead to the formation of bubbles around the orifice. Insufficient oxidation can lead to poor bonding, foaming and a lack of binding force. Micro-etching should be performed to a depth of 1.5 to two microns before the copper deposition and 0.3 to one micron before the pattern plating process. Chemical analysis can be used to ensure that the required depth has been achieved.

Substrate processing

Foaming on the copper plating of the PCB board is a major quality defect that can be caused by poor substrate processing. This issue occurs when the copper foil on the board surface is unable to adhere to the chemical copper because of poor bonding. This causes the copper foil to blister on the board surface. This results in an uneven color and black and brown oxidation.

The process of copper plating requires the use of heavy copper adjustment agents. These chemical liquid medicines can cause cross contamination of the board and result in poor treatment effects. In addition to this, it can lead to uneven board surfaces and a poor bonding force between the board and the PCBA assembly.

Micro-erosion

Foaming on copper plating of PCB board can be caused by two major factors. The first is improper copper plating process. The copper plating process uses a lot of chemicals and organic solvents. The copper plating treatment process is complicated and the chemicals and oils in the water used for plating can be harmful. They can cause cross-contamination, uneven defects, and binding problems. The water used for copper plating process should be controlled and should be of good quality. Another important thing to consider is the temperature of copper plating. This will greatly affect the washing effect.

Micro-erosion occurs when water and oxygen are dissolved on the copper plate. The dissolved water and oxygen from the water causes an oxidation reaction and forms a chemical compound called ferrous hydroxide. The oxidation process results in the release of electrons from the board’s copper plating.

Lack of cathodic polarity

Foaming on the copper plating of a PCB board is a common quality defect. The process used for manufacturing the PCB board is complex and requires careful process maintenance. The process involves chemical wet processing and plating, and requires careful analysis of the cause and effect of foaming. This article describes the causes of foaming on the copper plate and what can be done to prevent it.

The pH level of the plating solution is also crucial, as it determines the cathodic current density. This factor will affect the coating’s deposition rate and quality. A lower pH plating solution will result in greater efficiency, while a higher pH will result in less.